Is That a Man or a Woman in Da Vincis Last Supper

The Last Supper is one of the great Renaissance painter Leonardo Da Vincis most famous and fascinating masterpieces — and the subject of many legends and controversies. One of those controversies involves the figure seated at the table to the right of Christ. Is that St. John or Mary Magdalene? The History of The Last Supper Although there are multiple reproductions in museums and on mousepads, the original of The Last Supper is a fresco. Painted between 1495 and 1498, the work is enormous, measuring 15 by 29 feet (4.6 x 8.8 meters). Its colored plaster covers the entire wall of the refectory (dining hall) in the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy. The painting was a commission from Ludovico Sforza, the Duke of Milan and Da Vincis employer for nearly 18 years (1482-1499). Leonardo, always the inventor, tried using new materials for The Last Supper. Instead of using tempera on wet plaster (the preferred method of fresco painting, and one which had worked successfully for centuries), Leonardo painted on dry plaster, which resulted in a more varied palette. Unfortunately, dry plaster is not as stable as wet, and the painted plaster began to flake off the wall almost immediately. Various authorities have struggled to restore it ever since. Composition and Innovation in Religious Art The Last Supper is Leonardos visual interpretation of an event chronicled in all four of the Gospels (books in the New Testament). The gospels say that the evening before Christ was to be betrayed by one of his disciples, he gathered them all together to eat and to tell them that he knew what was coming (that he would be arrested and executed). There, he washed their feet, a gesture symbolizing that all were equal under the eyes of the Lord. As they ate and drank together, Christ gave the disciples explicit instructions on how to remember him in the future using the metaphor of food and drink. Christians consider it as the first celebration of the Eucharist, a ritual still performed today. This Biblical scene had certainly been painted before, but in Leonardos The Last Supper the disciples are all displaying very human, identifiable emotions. His version depicts iconic religious figures as people rather than saints who are reacting to the situation in a human way. Furthermore, the technical perspective in The Last Supper was created such that every single element of the painting directs the viewers attention straight to the midpoint of the composition, Christs head. It is arguably the greatest example of one-point perspective ever created. Emotions in Paint The Last Supper depicts a specific moment in time. It illustrates the first few seconds after Christ told his apostles that one of them would betray him before sunrise. The 12 men are depicted in small groups of three, reacting to the news with differing degrees of horror, anger, and shock. Looking across the picture from left to right: Bartholomew, James Minor, and Andrew form the first group of three. All are aghast, Andrew to the point of holding his hands up in a stop gesture.The next group is Judas, Peter, and John. Judass face is in shadow and he is clutching a small bag, perhaps containing the 30 pieces of silver he received for betraying Christ. Peter is visibly angry, and a feminine-looking John seems about to swoon.Christ is in the center, the calm in the midst of the storm.Thomas, James Major, and Philip are next: Thomas clearly agitated, James Major stunned, and Philip seems to be seeking clarification.Finally, Matthew, Thaddeus, and Simon comprise the last group of three figures, Matthew and Thaddeus turned away to Simon for explanations, but their arms are stretched out towards Christ. Was Mary Magdalene at the Last Supper? In The Last Supper, the figure at Christs right arm does not possess an easily-identified gender. Hes not bald, or bearded, or anything we visually associate with masculinity. In fact, he looks feminine. As a result, some people (like the novelist Dan Brown in The Da Vinci Code) have speculated that Da Vinci wasnt depicting John at all, but rather Mary Magdalene. There are three very good reasons why Leonardo was likely not depicting Mary Magdalene. 1. Mary Magdalene wasnt at the Last Supper. Although she was present at the event, Mary Magdalene wasnt listed among the people at the table in any of the four Gospels. According to Biblical accounts, her role was a minor supporting one. She wiped feet. John is described as eating at the table with the others. 2. It would have been blatant heresy for Da Vinci to paint her there. Late 15th-century Catholic Rome was not a period of enlightenment with regard to competing religious beliefs. The Inquisition began in the late 12th century France. The Spanish Inquisition began in 1478 and 50 years after The Last Supper was painted, Pope Paul II established the Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition in Rome itself. The most famous victim of this office was in 1633, Leonardos fellow scientist Galileo Galilei. Leonardo was an inventor and experimenter in all things, but it would have been worse than foolhardy for him to risk offending both his employer and his Pope. 3. Leonardo was known for painting effeminate men. There is controversy over whether Leonardo was gay or not. Whether he was or wasnt, he certainly devoted more attention to male anatomy and beautiful males in general than he did to female anatomy or females. There are some rather sensuous young men depicted in his notebooks, complete with long, curly tresses and modestly downcast, heavy-lidded eyes. The faces of some of these men are similar to that of John. Based on this, it seems clear that Da Vinci painted the apostle John swooning next to Christ, and not Mary Magdalene. The Da Vinci Code is interesting and thought-provoking. However, it is a work of fiction and a creative tale woven by Dan Brown based on a bit of history that goes well above and beyond the historical facts.

Theories Of Crime Robbery - 1514 Words

Theories of Crime – Robbery Introduction Understanding patterns and motivation of crimes is important for solving the mysteries surrounding them. In this sense, theories can be used to explain crime phenomena and answer the questions involved. Through theory, important aspects surrounding a crime can be discovered. Therefore, understanding the patterns and motivations of crimes can be helpful towards preventing their occurrence. This paper focuses on robbery as a type of crime. The two theories that are applied to robbery, in this case, are strain theory and social disorganization theory. Robbery usually involves unlawful taking of property from an organization or an individual through use of force or threat of force. There may also be†¦show more content†¦The criminals, in this case, see engagement in robbery activities as a way of achieving their goals. Social Disorganization Theory The focus of this theory is on the association between social control, the neighborhood structure, and crime (Kubrin Weitzer, 2003). Social disorganization is the incapability of the community to solve significant problems and achieve common goals. The theory posits that residential mobility, poverty, ethnic heterogeneity, and weak social networks decrease the ability of the neighborhood to manage the behavior of people and hence the likelihood of crime is increased (Kubrin Weitzer, 2003). Therefore, the social and physical environments of neighborhoods can increase the chances robbery. Factors such as unemployment, vandalized buildings, and poverty can thus be used to explain the occurrence of robbery. When the robbery rates have increased in a neighborhood, an examination of the social and physical environment can yield answers to robbery patterns. Literature Review A study by Moon, Blurton, McCluskey (2008) sought to assess the effect of strains and perceived strains injustice on delinquency. According to the research, perceived injustice and recent strains on an individual have significant effects on delinquency. The researchers based their study on the Agnew’s Strain Theory. According to the theory, when strain is perceived as unjust and isShow MoreRelatedSocial Learning Theory : Social Theory936 Words   |  4 PagesSocial Learning Theory Social learning theory determines that an individual learn as they move along their cognitive process(Bandura,1963). Such person studied the context of social structure, interaction, and situation produces when committing a crime. Similarly as rational choice theory, they weight the cost and reward before conducting the crime, yet there has been a long period of time of learning for the individual with social learning theory. He or she is more likely to be exposed to a personRead MoreClassical Theory And Psychological Positivism1557 Words   |  7 Pagesconstantly evolving theories through the annals of Criminology. The modern crime depicted in the scenario portrays the dual aspects of both the offender as an individual and the offense of robbing a local convenience store. This scenario may be analysed through the two schools of Classical theory and Psychological Positivism, relating to the perpetual debate that has sparked the revisionist stream of criminological theories which has culminated in the conception and treatment of crime by the modern criminalRead MoreSociological Concepts848 Words   |  4 Pagesexamine sociological concepts and examples of how they apply in everyday life. Many people experience social problems on a personal level. For instance, this could be poverty, unemployment, poor health, alcohol abuse, family problems or committing crimes. When people hear about these individuals most of the time, they tend to think that it’s not their problems. They tend to blame these individuals for causing problems, and they believe it to be just. However, sociology takes a different perspectiveRead MoreCriminological Theories On The Crime Scene And Measure Characteristics Of Crimes, Victims, And Criminals1303 Words   |  6 Pages Criminological Theories YourFirstName YourLastName University title Criminological Theories Name (Institutional Affiliation) According to Sutherland Edward one of the many founding fathers of modern day criminology, we as learners are able to learn that criminology is a body of knowledge that regards crime as social phenomenon. In details, criminology entails processes such as breaking laws, making laws, and the reactions taken towards breaking of laws. When itRead MoreSocietal Factors Influence On Murder Rates Essay1353 Words   |  6 Pagespopulation, unemployment, robbery rate, income and education. This will allow for a better understanding of some of the root causes for deadly violent crimes in America, as well as the implementation of preventive measures aimed at fighting the problem in the future. Theory and Data In order to answer this project’s main, question a data set containing information regarding its main points of interest was obtained from the website statcrunch.com. The file holds information on various crime rates, employmentRead MoreWhy Law Abiding Citizens Should Care About The Treatment Of Criminals Essay1213 Words   |  5 Pageswill be narrowed down to focus on the role of policing as it pertains to social control through the labeling theory, deterrence effect of policing, and consequences of policing. Through these three aspects, evidence will be presented that will show a more favorable outcome for individuals within society to be concerned with the interactions among law enforcement and offenders. LABELING THEORY From the deviance course at Salem College it has been ascertained that policing is a form of social controlRead MoreCja 314 Crime Data Comparison Essay1627 Words   |  7 PagesSUBMITTED FOR GRADING, SO PLEASE DON’T PLAGIARIZE. Crime Data Comparison: Honolulu amp; New York NAME CJA 314 DATE PROF. Crime Data Comparison Crime is something that occurs throughout the world. To some people it is an incident that adds stress to one’s life, and to others, they see it as a way of life. Over the last years, different areas of the United States have been affected by crime. The Federal Bureau of Investigation Uniform Crime Report (UCR) Program is a nationwide program thatRead MoreWhat Is Street Robbery?945 Words   |  4 PagesWhat is Street Robbery? The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)’s Uniform Crime Reporting (UCR) Program defines robbery as â€Å"the taking or attempting to take anything of value from the care, custody, or control of a person or persons by force or threat of force or violence and/or by putting the victim in fear (FBI, 2010).† Monk, Heinonen and Eck (2010) further displayed the five necessary characteristics of the street crime: 1. â€Å"the offender targets a victim; 2. the victim is a pedestrian and aRead MoreThe New York Police Department945 Words   |  4 Pagesbeginning of the 1990s, New York City was filled with violent crime. In the events of recent police shootings, citizens could not help but fear the possibility of the city going back to how it was during the 1990s and earlier violent era times. However, recent studies and reports have indicated that the city has never been as dangerous and violent as it was in earlier times. As by 2015, a modest decrease in the rate of serious reported crimes was noteworthy. Reports by the New York Police DepartmentRead MoreCity of God Analysis954 Words   |  4 Pagessociological theories of crime and deviance. Some of the major theories I noticed throughout the movie were the functionalist theory, including examples of relative depravation, as well as the interactionist theory, including differential association and labeling. There was also evidence of the conflict theory and the control theory throughout the film. The functionalist theory states that hard work leads to rewards, and when these rewards are not sufficient, deviance arises. Crime and deviance

Farmland Industries Inc. Essay Example For Students

Farmland Industries Inc. Essay IntroductionToday, when we hear the slogans better farming, better food, or proud tobe farmer owned one company comes to mind, Farmland Industries. We maythink of this of this fortune 500 company as a leading agriculturalpowerhouse, which it is, however, it was not always that way. Background Farmland Industries Inc. was founded by Howard A. Cowden, who was born andraised in Southwestern Missouri. Cowden started young in the cooperativebusiness by working for the Missouri Farmers Association (MFA). However; inOctober of 1927, he had resigned from the position of secretary for the MFAand started out on his own. Immediately following, Cowden received the MFAoil contract that previously had been held with Standard Oil Company, andCowden was now in the wholesale oil business. On January 27, 1928, CowdenOil Company was founded. This business was moved to Kansas City, Missouriin late 1928. In January of 1929, Cowden Oil Company was dissolved and Union Oil Company(Cooperative) was formed. It was clear that Cowden had planned to do morethan just buy and sell oil to local cooperatives. A board of directors wascreated to run the company, yet Cowden retained full control over thecompany that he had created. Cowden started recruiting smaller companies tojoin their cooperative by signing contracts to sell certain amounts ofUnions products. In 1929, Union Oil Company had purchased its first land. The Two Car Garage, as it is referred to, was the building that they hadpurchase to become their new home. In 1935, Union Oil Company changed its name to Consumers CooperativeAssociation (CCA). CO-OP was decided to be its official logo. In Octoberof 1956, CCA moved to their new home on North Oak Trafficway, in KansasCity, and the company was ready for major business. In June of 1961, HowardA. Cowden retired as President of CCA and Homer Young stepped in to fillhis shoes. In early to mid 1966, CCA changed its name again. This time to FarmlandIndustries, Inc., however; they still kept that CO-OP symbol for atrademark. CCA now emphasized much of its business to fertilizer, petroleumand commercial feed. This business only grew and grew for them. By 1967,Farmland Industries had manufacturing facilities for various kinds offertilizer at Lawrence, Kansas; Hastings, Nebraska; Green Bay, Florida; FortDodge, Iowa; Joplin, Missouri, and a plant under construction in Dodge City(Fite 281). From here, Farmland Industries only increased its size, sales, anddividends, not to mention popularity. Some of the major lines include:Food Marketing, Feed, Crop Production, Grain, Beef, and Pork. Of course,there are many, many other lines that the company has produced throughoutthe years. Some of these things include: Ful-O-Pep (Union Oil CompanysAntiknock gas designed to compete with ethyl), CO-OP tires, Batteries,Groceries, Canning and Dehydration, Tractors, Paint, Twine, S teel buildings,and many other successful ventures, along with many other flops. Weve been working to improve margins-by lowering costs, by implementingshared margin programs, by offering prebooking, and contracting programs infuel, crop production, products, feed-and by increasing our emphasis onproviding timely information and other services (Annual 94 2). Organizational CultureToday, Farmland is the largest farmer-owned agricultural input cooperativein the United States. Its mission is: To be a producer-driven,customer-focused and profitable ag supply to consumer foods cooperativesystem (The Farmland Cooperative System 6). The people of FarmlandIndustries believe in American agriculture. They believe that everyoneinvolved in progressive agriculture in America today is entitled to a returnon their investments. Farmlands world headquarters are located in Kansas City, Missouri. Thecity is located on the banks of the Missouri river in western Missouri. Themetropolitan area itself includes four counties in the state of Kansas whichhelps make up its population of 1.65 million people (U.S. Bureau of theCensus 1). According to the U.S. Census Bureau, 82.2 percent of thispopulation are White, 12.7 percent are Black, 3.1 percent are Hispanic, and1.9 percent include various other Races (1). In 1995, the estimated KansasCity median household inco me was $37,841. Thirty-eight percent of thehouseholds in the metro area have an effective buying power (this is thediscretionary income households have after paying off all debts) of morethan $50,000 per year (U.S. Bureau of the Census). Kansas City also boastsone of the lowest cost of living in major metropolitan areas. It rankedthird among 25 cities with populations above 1.5 million people (U.S. Bureauof the Census). There are many exciting things to do once youre in Kansas City.

Synthesis Research Problem - Design and Method

Question: Give a discussion on quantitative research design and qualitative research design? Answer: Introduction Research design can be defined as the scientific work structure. The research is directed and systemized by the design. It is the framework that is generated in order to find the answers of research questions (Salkind, 2010). The design of a research ensures that the obtained evidence will make us capable of answering the initial questions of a research unambiguously. There is a great difference between the research design and research method. But often these two words are confused by the researchers. The research design is often treated as data collection methods instead of being treated as a logical structure that is developed for the inquiry of the research (Salaberry Comajoan, 2013). How the data are collected is not at all related to the logical design of the research. The inability to distinguish between the research design and method, often results in poor evaluation of the research (Spoon, 2012). The design that is chosen by a researcher depends on the following factors- The aim of the conducted study or research i.e. the information that are needed in order to conduct the study. Whether the design is effective in collecting the data. Whether the information collected by using the research design is reliable or not. Whether the design support the ethical issues of the study. The cost of the research design (De Vaus, 2005). There are various types of research design options available for the researchers. All of them have some advantages as well as disadvantages. The design that is chosen by the researcher affects the results and findings of the research. There are two main types of research designs that are used by the researchers. These are Qualitative research Quantitative research. Quantitative research design The quantitative research methods are also known as the true science methods as in this method traditional statistical and mathematical measures are used in order to get the results. This method is mostly applied by the physical scientists. Sometimes it is also used by the scientists belonging to the field of biology, economics and social science. The standard format of the research includes development of hypothesis which is proved by means of quantitative analysis using the statistical and mathematical analysis of the data (Taylor Posch, 2014). In quantitative research design, the study groups are generally randomized and incorporation of a control group is done wherever possible. Hypothetical research design (quantitative research): Any type of research is based on a hypothetical platform. For different types of research, the hypothetical research designs are different. Hypothesis: Foot massage is able to reduce agitation in dementia affected patients. Plan of the research: For investigating the hypothesis, the selected samples are categorized in two groups. In one group, the foot massage method is applied and the other group is taken as control where no foot massage is applied. Here the dependent variable is agitation and the causes of agitation are the independent variables (Moyle et al., 2014). The level of agitation is measured in the two groups. Then the data was compared between the two groups. Research questions: Is there any effect of the foot massage therapy on the agitation of dementia patient? Is the effect of foot massage is different for different patients of dementia? To what extent the foot massage therapy is effective? Analysis: The level of agitation is measured using various means before the application of the foot massage therapy and after the application of the therapy and the change in the level of agitation is measured. The data is analyzed statistically in order to determine the effect of foot massage on agitation (Moyle et al., 2014). Strength of the quantitative research method: Quantitative research design is very effective in disproving or proving a hypothesis. The results of the research can be finalized depending on the data. The results obtained after statistical and mathematical analysis of the data can be discussed legitimately and can be published (Pande Dhami, 2014). As quantitative research is based on the comparison of the data between the study group and the control group, the external factors can be excluded and the results obtained can be considered as unbiased and real. The results obtained by qualitative experiment can be tested by applying quantitative research design in order to get the final results. Weaknesses of the quantitative research method: Quantitative researches are often expensive, difficult and time consuming. These types of researches require careful planning in order to ensure complete randomization of sample and correct selection of control groups. Quantitative researches are based on rigorous statistical analysis which is generally difficult for the scientists who are not statisticians. Again, it is very stringent to confirm the statistical results successfully, as there some ambiguity is always there that needs further research and testing which means investment of additional time and resources (Perreault, 2011). Quantitative research method is applied for only proving or disproving the data. But in case of anthropology, education, social science etc. the data cannot be obtained by simply responding positively or negatively due to the complexity of the human nature. Qualitative research design: This research design is mainly used by the researchers and scientists in order to study the human habits and behavior. This is a flexible research design that encompasses a number of accepted structures and methods, ranging from extensive interviewing of many people to case study of an individual person (Parylo, 2012). The mostly used methods in the qualitative research design include interviews, case studies and survey designs. Designing of this type of study should also be done carefully. No standardized structure is followed in order to design a qualitative research. Hypothetical research design (qualitative research): Hypothesis: musical therapy is useful to treat mental illness. Plan of the research: In the qualitative research design, statistical analysis of data is not performed. In order to prove the hypothesis open ended questionnaires, direct interviewing etc. are generally used by the researchers, which is an excellent way to collect information and data regarding the research. In the chosen hypothesis, at first the effect of music is observed in a group of selected individuals suffering from mental illness. Then they are invited to attend a music program on the weekly basis along with their care takers and the effect of the musical program on the selected individuals is observed. Then the mentally ill patients and their care takers are interviewed regarding the effect of music on them (Moyle et al., 2014). Research questions: What is the effect of music on the mentally ill persons? Is music able to connect the mentally ill persons with their care takers? What is the effect of the music on the care takers? Does the music help to strengthen the bond between the mentally ill person and the care taker? Analysis: The information obtained is carefully observed and analyzed in order to obtain the result and prove or disprove the hypothesis. Strength of qualitative research design: Qualitative methods are useful when the research hypothesis cannot be proved by answering yes or no. it is mainly used in case of complex researches. This type of research designs can be planned and carried out easily. Qualitative research design covers a broader scope and ensures that the research will produce data that will be useful (McCusker Gunaydin, 2014). Qualitative research is not completely dependent on the sample size as in the case of quantitative data. Consumption or resource and time is significantly low in case of qualitative research design. Weaknesses of qualitative research design: The results obtained by using such methods are very accurate and need further quantitative analysis in order to increase the accuracy of the result. Planning must be done very carefully in order to increase the accuracy of the result (Ortiz, 2007). Qualitative research cannot be replicated. Conclusion: quantitative or qualitative? There is always debate regarding the applicability and efficiency of the qualitative and quantitative research design. Both these research designs have their strengths and weaknesses. So the question that arises before conducting a research is that whether qualitative or quantitative research design to be used for the research. If the research involves an enquiry whose answer depend on numerical evidences and analysis, then it is best to use the quantitative research design. Again if the research is aimed at finding the reasons behind an incidence or phenomena or involve results that do not need numerical analysis, the qualitative research design should be the best to choose. Again some studies require the involvement of both the qualitative and quantitative design of research, in which the weaknesses of both the research designs are covered by each other (Lund, 2012). References: De Vaus, D. (2005).Research design. London: SAGE. Jackson, N. (2015). Music Therapy and Chronic Mental Illness: Overcoming the Silent Symptoms.Music Therapy Perspectives. doi:10.1093/mtp/miv017 Lund, T. (2012). Combining Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches: Some Arguments for Mixed Methods Research.Scandinavian Journal Of Educational Research,56(2), 155-165. doi:10.1080/00313831.2011.568674 McCusker, K., Gunaydin, S. (2014). Research using qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods and choice based on the research.Perfusion. doi:10.1177/0267659114559116 Moyle, W., Cooke, M., Beattie, E., Shum, D., ODwyer, S., Barrett, S. (2014). Foot massage versus quiet presence on agitation and mood in people with dementia: A randomised controlled trial.International Journal Of Nursing Studies,51(6), 856-864. doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2013.10.019 Ortiz, D. (2007). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches [Book Review].Qualitative Research Journal,6(2), [205]-207. doi:10.3316/qrj0602205 Pande, H., Dhami, H. (2014). Statistical Methods in Language and Linguistic Research.Journal Of Quantitative Linguistics,21(3), 295-297. doi:10.1080/09296174.2014.911507 Parylo, O. (2012). Qualitative, Quantitative, or Mixed Methods: An Analysis of Research Design in Articles on Principal Professional Development (1998-2008).International Journal Of Multiple Research Approaches, 1419-1462. doi:10.5172/mra.2012.1419 Perreault, K. (2011). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods Approaches.Manual Therapy,16(1), 103. doi:10.1016/j.math.2010.09.003 Salaberry, M., Comajoan, L. (2013).Research Design and Methodology in Studies on L2 Tense and Aspect. Boston: De Gruyter. Salkind, N. (2010).Encyclopedia of research design. Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage. Spoon, J. (2012). Environmental Social Sciences: Methods and Research Design.EBL,3, 33. doi:10.14237/ebl.3.2012.48 Taylor, S., Posch, A. (2014). The Design of a Quantitative Western Blot Experiment.Biomed Research International,2014, 1-8. doi:10.1155/2014/361590

Managing organizational change

Decision making in manufacturing organization related to make or buy scenarios. The WritePass Journal

Decision making in manufacturing organization related to make or buy scenarios. INTRODUCTION Decision making in manufacturing organization related to make or buy scenarios. INTRODUCTIONDecision Making: Decision making Theory:LITERATURE REVIEW  Make or Buy DecisionsMake or Buy CategoriesInitiation of Make or Buy StudiesLong-term/Short-term ConsiderationsFinancial/Non-Financial ClassificationAspects for ConsiderationReasons / considerations for MakingReasons / considerations for BuyingReasons given for reconsidering Make-Buy Decisions RESEARCH METHODOLOGYData collection TechniquesQualitative and Quantitative Research approachProject PlanReferences.Related INTRODUCTION Manufacturing Organization in Today’s world is constantly facing the challenges of making strategic decisions that affect the sustainability and profitability of the manufacturing Organization. This study will be exploring the aspects of decision making within a manufacturing Organisation as it relates to make or buy scenarios. In other for these decisions to be made an understanding of the decision making process is needed. Decision Making: This involves the processes resulting to a selection of a course of action among several alternatives.(1) To a great extend, the success or failure of companies greatly depends on the quality of their decisions. Decision making Theory: This is a general approach to decision making when the outcomes associated with alternatives are often in doubt. It follows a process of 1. Listing the feasible alternatives. One alternative that should be always considered as a basis for reference is to do   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  nothing. 2. List the events. (Also called chance events or states of nature) that have an impact on the outcome of the choice but not under the decision maker`s control 3. Calculate the payoff for each alternative in each event The payoff is the total profit or total cost These payoffs can be entered into a payoff table, which shows the amount for each alternative if each possible event occurs.. 4. Estimate the likelihood of each event using past data, executive opinion or other forecasting methods. This is expressed as a probability, making sure that the probabilities sum to 1.0 5. Selecting a decision rule to evaluate the alternatives, such as choosing the alternative with the lowest expected cost. This depends on the amount of information the decision maker has on the events probabilities and the decision maker`s attititude towards risk The types of decision people make depend on how much knowledge or information they have about the situation. (2) Decision making can be examined under three different situations. 1. Decision making under uncertainty. (Events can be listed but their probability cannot be  Ã‚  Ã‚   estimated). 2. Decision making under risk. (Events can be listed and their probability estimated). 3. Decision making under certainty. (A situation where the outcomes are known) Buy or Make decisions are increasingly common as companies, in their efforts to improve efficiency and competitiveness, focus on their core activity which they do best, and contract out peripheral activities.(3) Make or buy decisions rarely depend solely on cost factors. Other factors need to be considered: e.g. Continuity of supplies Retaining skilled labour Employing specialist plant The availability of capital to make and the alternative uses for such capital etc.    Each company therefore engaged in manufacture may have to review periodically the extent to which it will: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Make or buy plant, equipment or components b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Process internally or buy out semi-finished components and materials Decisions may result from changes in the company or market situation. Some firms pursue a policy of specialisation and concentrate their production effort on a fairly narrow front and thus buy out a wide range of commodities. Other companies, however, tend to exercise greater control over the manufacture of equipment, components and the processing of semi-finished materials, minimising the number of the various items bought out.    LITERATURE REVIEW   Make or Buy Decisions a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   MACRO Decisions involve long-term capital expenditure relating usually to products and materials as in questions of vertical integration requiring the determination of policy by senior management e.g. the decision by a print manufacturer to acquire a printing press. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   MICRO Decisions, which normally relate to buyers e.g. new parts i.e. should these be made or bought in etc. Make or Buy Categories Make or buy decisions may apply in four different situations: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Items currently made in consideration being given to buying out. b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Items currently bought out consideration being given to making in. C)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Items currently part made in consideration being given to placing all the work internally or externally. d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Items for a new requirement consideration being given to making in or buying out in total or in part. Initiation of Make or Buy Studies Make or buy studies may be initiated by Purchasing or by other departments resulting from: a)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Large price increases being submitted by suppliers b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Space needed for other more lucrative production commitments c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Production rationalisation plans d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Comparative price studies (Value Analysis or ABC analysis). Long-term/Short-term Considerations Make or buy decisions may relate to long-term or short-term needs (i.e. can it be planned or emergency situations?).(5). The extent to which efforts are deployed will depend on value, importance and time-scale. Take the case of a company requiring a minor spare urgently. The part is normally made in but because of a machine breakdown Purchasing is asked to buy out. Obviously, in such a situation an in-depth study will not be mounted involving Finance, Product Development, Market Research etc. Financial/Non-Financial Classification Make or buy studies can be classified as being: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   financial i.e. they are done on a strictly cost comparison basis b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   non-financial i.e. they are done because of other constraints which will, obviously, have an ultimate financial impact (e.g. secrecy, lack of expertise, time factor etc.) Aspects for Consideration Aspects for consideration in a make or buy study may include: Item currently bought out a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Is there a patent involved which might incur a Royalty payment? b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Are the prices being paid the lowest which might be achieved externally? c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Does the supplier have a greater purchasing power than the buyer for the materials he obtains? d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Is the raw material readily available to the buyer? e)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Will the withdrawal of business from a supplier jeopardise future supplies should the make in decision be later reversed? Items currently made in: a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Will the quantities interest the outside supplier? b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Will new tooling be required and at what cost? c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Might the part be subject to frequent modification d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Will a transfer of work create personnel problems?    Reasons / considerations for Making 1)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Making is cheaper than buying (Cost considerations) 2)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To ensure direct control of quality 3)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Delivery times from outside suppliers are too long 4)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   No suitable suppliers 5)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To ensure continuity of supply 6)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To utilise spare production capacity (i.e. help to absorb fixed overhead/s) 7)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To retain labour during slack trade declining trade 8)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To maintain secrecy / Design secrecy required 9)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To utilise scrap / surplus materials 10)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Desire to integrate plant operations 11)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Desire to maintain a stable workforce (i.e. in periods of declining sales) 12)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Need to exert direct control over production and / or quality    Reasons / considerations for Buying a)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Buying is cheaper than making (Cost considerations) b)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Quantities required are too small for economical production c)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To avoid cost of specialist plant or labour d)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To augment capacity e)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To utilise the vendors specialist expertise, machinery and/or patents / RD f)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To reduce investment in inventory g)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Transfer of risk to vendor h)  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Own company may not be able to make all it needs of the sort of part (may not have the plant capacity.) i)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Desire to maintain a multi-source policy j)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Desire to maintain a stable workforce (i.e. in periods of rising sales) k)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   To open up new markets by sourcing overseas l)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Efficient Procurement Reasons given for reconsidering Make-Buy Decisions 1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Deterioration in suppliers quality performance 2)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Delivery failure or poor service by existing sources 3)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Large price increase 4)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Volume changes, much larger or smaller quantity requirements for item concerned 5)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Pressure to reduce costs 6)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Desire to maintain employment of people or utilisation of plant and physical resources in a downturn 7)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Need to get earlier or more reliable sources 8)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Need for design secrecy 9)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Import substitution 10)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Suppliers withdrawal from a particular market    RESEARCH METHODOLOGY In carrying out research, academics have suggested considering using various types of research approach. The scope of this report is to explore make or buy decision making in manufacturing organization The general principle is that the research strategy or strategies, and the methods or techniques employed, must be appropriate for the questions you want to answer. This systematically describes the general overview of the link between research question and research design. To carry out a good project, one must develop his/her own ideas on how best to carry out the research. There are two different types of research route generally used by authors when carrying out a research, thesis or project, there are fixed and flexible design. (Robson.c, 2002). It compares the two different approaches in carrying out a research to petroleum engineers and explorers respectively: The petroleum engineer has a specific goal in mind, to find oil buried below the surface. Before the engineer begins the investigation on how to acquire the oil a careful study of maps showing features of the geographic area, with this information at hand the engineer will then go and find something specific. To follow the fixed design route, one must generally know what they are looking for, however flexible design encourages one to explore generally. Flexible design could be described as gathering information, going first in one direction and then perhaps retracting that route. On discovering a lake in the middle of a large wooded area, the explorer would take frequent compass readings, check that angle of the sun, takes noted on prominent land marks and then use feedback from each observation to modify earlier information. Carrying out a general research, it is advisable for an initial focus to be mapped out by the researcher as it aids to answer the primary question of (What do I intend to achieve when carrying out this research) The initial stages of carrying out a r esearch can be either problematic or straightforward depending on what sort of research is being carried out. Data collection Techniques The aim of the project is to carefully explore make or buy decision making in manufacturing organizations. In order to carry out a study on make or buy decision making for manufacturing organization. Books, journals, magazines and the internet will be used as a good source to acquire materials which aids in understanding the subject matter. There are different forms and sorts of data which should be considered before selecting the appropriate material. There are two sources of data one being primary and the other being secondary, the fundamental difference are primary data is data gathered at first hand from people in the general population or sample as the case may be. In contrast secondary data is the use and application of data that already exists usually from policy documents, newspapers, magazines and so on. Primary data can sometimes be expensive and can also take a while to collect data as a result of that the source of data that has been collected to build up this report will be mainly secondary. secondary source of data is of better quality because it is usually published so therefore unbiased which means it is not skewed in the favour of research objective. (Robson c., 2002). Qualitative and Quantitative Research approach Qualitative research can be described as an exploratory kind of research; its main purpose is to uncover prevailing trends of an opinion. The approach is concerned with words rather than numbers. This approach aims to investigate an in-depth understanding of its subject matter. Qualitative research is centrally concerned with understanding a thing rather than measuring them. (Robson.c, 2002). Quantitative research In general terms can be described as an approach that is primarily concerned with numbers how it relates to each other rather than words Quantitative research seeks to set up connecting relationships between two or more variables using statically method for testing of the variable’s strength and importance of its relationship. In this project the Qualitative research method will be used extensively as it allows for exploration of the subject to gain in-depth understanding Many models have being put forward as frame work for research design, below is a model that consist of the key components to a successful research. Adapted from Robson (2002). Purpose(s) What is the research trying to achieve? Is the author seeking to change something substantial as a result of this study or trying to explore the effectiveness of something? Theory- Where will the author find the theory that will direct and channel his research? What way will the theory be translated? Research questions- To what questions posed by the author are the research geared to provide answers for? What study is needed to know to correctly answer the research questions? How feasible are the questions poised given the time and the resources available? Methods-What techniques will be used to effectively collect data? To what degree will the data be analysed? How will the author communicate to other academics/ readers the authenticity of data collected Sampling Strategy- How will data be collected? Who will the author seek to interview? What will be the best way in balancing the need to be selective with the need to collect important data needed? Project Plan References. 1. Slack, N., chambers, s. 2007. Operations management. 2. Krajewski, L., Ritzman, L. 2007. Operations management. 3. Parmigiani, A. 2007. Why do firms make or buy? Investigation of concurrent sourcing strategic management Journal 28: 285-311. 4 He, D., Nickerson, JA. 2006. Why do firms make or buy? Efficiency, appropriability, and competition in the trucking industry. Strategic Organisation 4: 43-69. 5. Ashall, D. 2010. Lecture notes on procurement and supply chain management. 6. Mitchell, L. 2010. Lecture notes on Manufacturing Strategy. 7. Robson, C. (2002). Real world research. Michigan: Blackwell publishers.

Strategic SCM - Case Analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Strategic SCM - Analysis - Case Study Example Offering these dimensions has enabled Etihad Rail to offer unabated value to customer and remain relevant in the contemporary highly competitive railway transport industry. 1. Performance-8. Etihad Rail has several Electro-Motive Diesel SD70ACS that are designed to operate at speeds of 120 km/h and 200 km/h for freight and passenger trains respectively. Its trains are designed to accommodate any level of tolerances, and charge reasonable prices and customers are often contented that services delivered conform to their expectations. However, few fiascoes in its services need to be improved (John, 2011). 2. Features – 9. On arrival at Etihad owned stations, passengers receive a personal welcome. Additionally, passengers obtain assistance throughout the arrival process with staff meeting them at various points. Employees qualified in areas of service delivery help clients realize and reconsider seeking Etihad rail services. 3. Reliability-7. Often, products and passengers reach their destination with little or no delays. Despite a few instances of failures, passengers often book or purchase services from Etihad rail and obtain them, even at the most stroppy and adamant times (Etihad Rail, 2006). 5. Durability-8. The rail network has been constructed with steel and other durable materials from Al Dhafra Recycling Industries. These materials are long-lasting and can withstand adverse weather conditions. 6. Serviceability-8. Etihad Rail has several centers within its rail network. These centers are equipped with expert engineers who rapidly respond to failure in systems. Moreover, it regularly purchases materials to replace exhausted ones. Its engineers’ response to calamities or other technical glitches is on record as being among the highest in the UAE. 8. Perceived Quality-8. Customers have a high expectation of quality products and